Persuasive Speech Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Persuasive Speech - Essay Example For every one of us, our childhood was the precious gift by the lord above. But wait, if it was a precious gift for us what about those unprivileged children who are badly struck with the fears of poverty, fear of getting beaten up at work, more precisely, the child labor, fear of being the victim of physical, emotional and sexual abuse. For all those children, childhood means nothing but a nightmare filled with abuses, injuries, pains and lots more. Today I will speak on Child Abuse. Can we spare a minute from our busy lives to think and act against all sorts of abuses to protect our children to save our future generation and our future leaders from all the evils dwelling in our society? Say no to child abuse. Help a child to restore his self-esteem and his confidence but most importantly, his childhood. I was surprised to know when I read that a number of children die of abuse and extreme neglect than of natural calamities. With the passage of time, the percentage of child abuse is soaring day by day and unfortunately. I have never observed any serious efforts or actions taken by the developed societies on this serious problem. How oblivious we are? Today, here with all my heart I condemn child abuse; be it physical, emotional, mental or sexual. Every child has a right to live a life of freedom. They deserve the same share of happiness and joy as we deserved in our times and like many of the privileged children around the world. It is important to understand the term â€Å"Child abuse† before I continue further. Child abuse is a serious injury inflicted purposefully upon a child by anyone who is in the role of his caregiver. Child abuse can be physical, mental, emotional or sexual. Child abuse is a global issue which needs serious efforts by all of us. It has been affecting children from all age groups to 18 years of age. The percentage of reported child abuse cases are increasing day by day. However, it has been observed that a large number of child abuses

Issues in Scottish Curriculum Design Essay Example for Free

Issues in Scottish Curriculum Design Essay The way that any curricula is broken up into is two main ways; one being the curriculum in action, where the aims, content and experiences of the curriculum on paper are implemented in practice. The other is the curriculum on paper which is the ideology of what should be implemented in education across the board. The ideology in curriculum can be split up into four main categories. Most papers on this topic, agree to an extent what the four ideologies constitute of, but Schiro’s (2008) ideologies are the most commonly known. The ‘Scholar Academic’, the ‘Social Efficiency’, the ‘Learner Centred’ and the ‘Social Reconstruction’ ideologies are the four main categories explained in the Curriculum Theory that will be discussed in this paper in relation to The Curriculum for Excellence, the current curriculum in Scotland. The oldest of the four ideologies is the Scholar Academic ideology which focuses on the accumulation of knowledge and understanding. The aim of this ideology is to pass on the knowledge of certain disciplines (subject areas), to allow there to be future scholars in that particular area and therefore, further develop understanding. The academic disciplines are the result of the culture’s compiled knowledge and understanding of each area, and with this in mind, the purpose of education is to assist pupils to learn this knowledge. The next ideology is Social Efficiency. This is pretty dominant in our curriculum today and means to prepare the learner for becoming an efficient and contributing member in society. The learner’s objective is to learn certain skills that will in turn achieve certain objectives that benefit society (Lorrie A. 2000). The individual will learn a mixture of knowledge and skills that can be put together, therefore making the skills more efficient and more beneficial to society. The learner centred ideology focuses more on the needs and interests of the individual rather than the c ontent they are to learn. The idea behind this theory is that learning will take place due to the interactions between the individual and their environment, therefore being more down to the experiences rather than the content. The newest of these ideologies is Social Reconstruction. This is where the social reconstructionists are aware of the problems in society and see the job of the educator to correct these problems in the classroom, hoping that it will reconstruct their society as it is (Groenke, S. 2009). The focus of the curriculum would not be based on knowledge but more of values and opinions that would benefit the society and make it attain the greatest satisfaction of its members. In ‘Building the Curriculum 3: A framework for learning and teaching’ it has examples of all four of the classifications of the curriculum ideology provided by Schiro (2008). It has examples of Academic ideology as it discusses the importance of knowledge and the ability and opportunity to increase the depth of knowledge already acquired as it states â€Å"Throughout a young person’s learning there will be increasing specialisation and greater depth, which will lead to subjects increasingly being the principal means of structuring learning and delivering outcomes.† (page 20, Building the Curriculum 3). From this quote we can relate the academic ideology through the concentration on developing knowledge further to specialisation in certain subjects, therefore being able to pass on the knowledge and allow it to grow from there. There are many examples of ‘The Social Efficiency Ideology’ in the paper as it focuses on health and wellbeing experiences and outcomes where the individual’s get the opportunity to gain skills that benefit the individual in life and work, but also the community around them. This is to help them become effective contributors in society: †¦support all children and young people in developing skills which they will use throughout their life and in their work, including the development of pre-vocational, enterprise and employability skills, personal skills, high levels of cognitive skills and the opportunity to put learning into a practical context. (page 15, Building the Curriculum 3) This example shows that the curriculum is aiming to encourage the learning of certain skills that will improve chances of employability and life skills that will help the young people settle into society and be able to play their part within it. The Curriculum for Excellence sees itself as being centred on the learner, and their individual needs. There are plenty examples throughout the paper of this ideology where the child is involved in what they are learning and setting themselves goals to achieve and having choice in what they learn within the curriculum, â€Å"All children and young people should experience personalisation and choice within their curriculum, including identifying and planning for opportunities for personal achievement in a range of different contexts† (page 17, Building the Curriculum 3). This quote shows that the idea of the curriculum is to give young people freedom to make their own decisions in what they are learning and at their own level. There are four capacities that make up the purpose of the curriculum that are described in this paper. ‘Successful learners’, ‘confident individuals’, ‘responsible citizens’ and ‘effective contributors’, are the capacities that the curriculum aims to enable young people to become. ‘Responsible citizens’ is a good example of The Social Reconstructive ideology as it explains how they will learn respect and about different cultures and how to behave responsibly within the community in all aspects (political, cultural or otherwise). As Building the curriculum states: †¦able to develop knowledge and understanding of the world and Scotland’s place in it, understand different beliefs and cultures make informed choices and decisions evaluate environmental, scientific and technological issues develop informed, ethical views of complex. (page 22, Building the Curriculum 3) Here in this example, it shows that the curriculum wants to provide young people with varied knowledge so that the decisions they make in the future will help to create a better society. The idea is to teach them about values and respect so that they may make better informed decisions as to what is best for the society around them. Building the Curriculum 3 contains examples of all four of the ideology categories, but there are two that are most prevalent, ‘Learner Centred’ and ‘Social Efficiency’. Upon examining the evidence in more depth it seems that the ‘Social Efficiency’ ideology is the most dominant within this paper. Its main focus is on preparing and equipping individuals for future endeavours. For instance, the skills needed for future work prospects upon which Kridel’s (ed.2010) summary, of David Sneddon’s idea of social efficiency, explains the curriculum as a way to make individuals efficient for work. As discussed by Arnoldy (online), social efficiency in education is more for the benefit of the social economy than for the individual, but contradicting that theory in this paper, are the examples of learner centred ideology that is dotted throughout. Though, combining these two theories, Valades’ (online) talks about the idea that to help out society, educating young people to learn and improve their skills and capabilities to help the community in the future, is the way forward. From Building the Curriculum 3 and having summarised that the main ideology behind it is focusing on preparing the individuals to become more efficient and productive for contributing to our society, we can see that there will be some implication for teachers. Teachers who have been teaching for years under the same curriculum will struggle to accept the new curriculum, if it is as completely different way to how they have been teaching before. Although the main focus of the curriculum in Scotland has been focused on preparing individuals for the future, it has not been focused on the more individual level. This may cause implication for teachers as they only have specific allocated times to be with classes and it will be hard to offer each individual, the time and attention they need to develop specific skills to the point of being efficient. The teacher will have to focus more on the experiences and outcomes the learners are objected to, to develop the skills needed for the real world. This causes some problems as it depends highly on what the school can afford to give in ways of experiences, as most of these will probably be met outside of school. So, teachers need to find a way of achieving the outcome of making the individual a more effective contributor to society by combining what they learn in and outside of the classroom. This would be a task for teachers, as the environment each individual they teach will be different and this therefore means that the teacher will have to find a way to combine these different environments or find a similarity and focus on that. Building the Curriculum 3 has some implication for teachers, but the focus being on social efficiency means that in some ways there are not so many changes from the past as at least for the last hundred years the school curriculum has been focused on making learners that will have skills that will help them achieve objectives that will make the society a more efficient place. A Comparative Overview of the Curriculum Ideologies Chapter 6 http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/47671_ch_6.pdf (visited 29th dec 2012) Critical Pedagogy and Teacher Education in the Neoliberal Era: Small Openings pp 3 Springer Netherlands, 2009 volume 6 Susan L. Groenke http://www.geocities.ws/rf_valades/index2.htm Social Efficiency Theory SAVE SOMETHING TODAY Rodrigo Valades visited 29th dec 2012 The Role of Assessment in a Learning Culture Lorrie A. Shepard Vol. 29, No. 7 (Oct., 2000), pp. 4 American Educational Research Association http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/47671_ch_6.pdf Chapter 6 A Comparative Overview of the Curriculum Ideologies visited 29th dec 2012 Encyclopedia of Curriculum Studies edited by Craig Kridel SAGE Publications Inc 2010 Pg 4-7 Curriculum Theory: Conflicting Visions and Enduring Concerns, Schiro, M. (2008a) SAGE Publications, Inc Pg 199-245 Curriculum Theory: Conflicting Visions and Enduring Concerns Second Edition, Schiro, M. (2012b) SAGE Publications, Inc Building the Curriculum 3: A framework for learning and teaching, The Scottish Government, 2008

Alone With Nature :: essays research papers

Alone with Nature Arriving at the lusciously dense forest at daybreak, you gaze at the fresh dew delicately dangling on the foliage. You stroll through the winding dirt trails towards the steady flowing water while the birds proudly recite their early morning songs. Reaching the free flowing stream you bend down and see your clear reflection in front of the orange-yellow sky. Goosebumps rise along your arms as the streams icy depths run through your fingers. The cleansing water quickly refreshes your face, quickly washing away your anxieties and frustrations of a usual hectic life. Beyond the stream is a meadow filled with a variety of flowers. Taking a stroll through the meadow is like walking through a rainbow. The shades of the velvety ornamented flower petals vary from scarlet, to baby blue. Despite the similarities in color, nothing else seems to be the same- they all tower 2 or 3 feet above the dark, rich soil. They sway playfully in unison with the warm caressing breeze, carefully merging the two scents into one fresh, clean fragrance.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  You pry yourself away from the immense meadow, still filled with many unexplored treasures and turn back into the foliage covered depths of the forest. The sun is comfortably placed in front of the cotton candy clouds, in the midst of the soft blue sky. The occasional bird soars through in a last minuet attempt to catch a worm so it may feed the yearning mouths of it's young. The rough dirt trail ends and you are brought to the base of a rock. Your feet reach for the unfamiliar footholds of the high rocky promontory, anxiously scrambling up the streaky pinkish rock ready to explore any new treasures that lie beyond you. Once on top, you gaze down and see it all- the crystal clear stream brilliantly

Cyborg Imagination in the Age of Electronic Incunabula :: Research Essays Term Papers

Cyborg Imagination in the Age of Electronic Incunabula In Hamlet on the Holodeck, Janet Murray argues that we live in an age of electronic incubabula. Noting that it took fifty years after the invention of the printing press to establish the conventions of the printed book, she writes, "The garish videogames and tangled Web sites of the current digital environment are part of a similar period of technical evolution, part of a similar struggle for the conventions of coherent communication" (28). Although I disagree in various ways with her vision of where electronic narrative is going, it does seem likely that in twenty years, or fifty, certain things will be obvious about electronic narrative that those of us who are working in the field today simply do not see. Alongside the obvious drawbacks--forget marble and gilded monuments, it would be nice for a work to outlast the average Yugo--are some advantages, not the least of which is what Michael Joyce calls "the momentary advantage of our awkwardness": we have an opportunity to see our in teractions with electronic media before they become as transparent as our interactions with print media have become. The particular interaction I want to look at today is the interaction of technology and imagination. If computer media do nothing else, they surely offer the imagination new opportunities; indeed, the past ten years of electronic writing has been an era of extraordinary technical innovation. Yet this is also, again, an age of incubabula, of awkwardness. My question today is, what can we say about this awkwardness, insofar as it pertains to the interaction of technology and the imagination? Let me begin with a confession: I'm a technodummy. By "dummy" I mean the kind of person targeted by books such as IDG Books' HTML for Dummies, Javascript for Dummies, and C++ for Dummies. I notice that the series has extended past the technical fields: there is now a Dieting for Dummies, an Entertaining for Dummies, and so forth. There is not only a Dating for Dummies but also an ABRIDGED version of Dating for Dummies, which I guess is for people who want to skip the movie. There is even a book put out by Alpha Books called The Complete Idiot's Guide to Enhancing Self-Esteem, which seems to me to be carrying the concept a bit far. Anyway, I confess that, although I've never bought a "for Dummies" book, I am one of the people such books are written for, a technodummy, which is to say someone who isn't exceptionally skilled in using computers.

1920s medicine Essay

The 1920s had many discoveries and innovations when it comes to medicine and science. Many of the things that we now take for granted were just getting their start during the 20s. Throughout the 1920s, new innovations in the medical and science field led to the discovery of vitamins and knowing more than ever before about the human body. New vital drugs and vaccines were created in this era that are hard to imagine not having today. The invention/discovery of the first anti-bacterial drugs saved more people from bacterial and viral infections than any previous time. Before the 1920s many medical conditions were untreatable or even deadly that we now consider to be easily cared for. Penicillin was one of the big medical discoveries of the 20s, the world’s first antibiotic. Penicillin was discovered by Alexander Flemming when he was examining mold and bacterial growth. This discovery opened up the possibilities for killing bacterial infections and without this many other medical innovations would not have occurred. Insulin was another major medical discovery in the 20s. Without this people with diebetes would not be able to properly treat their condition and thousands would die from a now treatable disorder. Various types of vitamins were also discovered in the 20s that help people today stay healthy. The medical field would not be what it is today if it wasn’t for the research put in by people of the 1920s. Millions of lives were saved due to the medical discoveries that were made in the 1920s. Without Penicillin, there may have never been any antibiotics created and a bacterial infection would mean a slow death. Insulin saves those with diebetes lives daily and without it diebetes would be considered a deadly condition. Life just wouldn’t be the same today if none of medical innovations of the 20s happened.

261 End of Huck Finn and The Yellow Wallpaper Professor Ramos Blog

261 End of Huck Finn and The Yellow Wallpaper Huck Finn Ending Quick Write Is The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn still relevant today? Why or why not? Huck Finn Ending Keynote speakers Jocelyn Chadwick, author of The Jim Dilemma: Reading Race in Huckleberry Finn Charlotte Perkins Gilman 1860-1935 Charlotte Perkins Gilman Biography The Yellow Wallpaper 1892 The Yellow Wallpaper (Short Film)

Being a Professional Nurse essays

Being a Professional Nurse essays A professional nurse is one who puts the needs and importance of patient care above all others. The professional should exert a positive public image considering the public is where services are directed to. A professional appearance is important for making first impressions on patients and other coworkers. The first impression is always of utmost importance and plays a major role in gaining a patients respect and trust. Once the nurse has began establishing a relationship with their patient, they must be careful to not pass or show any judgment on a patients decisions, beliefs, values, or culture. The professional nurse should demonstrate sensitivity to diverse cultural needs and ethnic backgrounds. Having an open mind is always necessary when dealing with such a wide array of people in the public as a nurse would be. Because healthcare is a continually expanding field, a professional nurse should be willing to stay up to date with continuing education or seminars, learning new a nd better ways to provide the best care possible for patients. The nurse should reflect a high degree of professionalism to patients, the public, and other professionals. Teamwork is a major characteristic of professional nursing. Many times nurses will need assistance helping their patients, and people will be more apt to lend a helping hand if you yourself go out of your way to help others. This not only helps your coworkers but in the long run provides faster more efficient care for the patients. Teamwork may be one of the most important professional characteristics in healthcare. Nurses act as advocates for the rights of their patients and are frequently involved in ethical issues and ethical decision-making processes. The professional nurse should be aware of and familiar with patient rights. The nurse must evaluate their own professional and personal values, reassessing them periodically to be aware of themselves. Ethical decision m...

Selectone of the works of art that are featured in Ch. Essays

Selectone of the works of art that are featured in Ch. Essays Selectone of the works of art that are featured in Ch. Selectone of the works of art that are featured in Ch. Providea response of approximately 150 words for each of the Describe the artwork in terms of the six elements of visual design: line, space, light and color, texture, pattern, and time and motion. Focus on the elements that are most relevant to your selected work of art. Joseph the Carpenter by Georges de La Tour is a simple work with minimal background and few objects in front to detract from the overall execution of the painting. The spacing of the painting suggests the night as cold, dark, and oppressive. The detail in this work is very rich in such subtleties as the smoke from the candle flame that seems to move as you watch it. The faces of the man and the boy seem almost photographic in their attention to detail. The symbolism here is rich and succinct especially in the one represented by the candle. The candle is the single light source surrounded by shadows and creates contrast. The boy holding the candle references Jesus as the Light of the World. The power of the candle appears almost mystically from his hands but is in part, not fully visible, suggesting that his full potential has not yet been revealed but rather held back, kept in check until the time is right for it to come out. Analyze the work in terms of the five principles of visual design: balance, emphasis and focal point, scale and proportion, repetition and rhythm, and unity and variety. Focus on the principles that are most relevant to your selected work of art. Georges de La Tour specialized in religious themes and utilized the technique known as chiaroscuro which means strong contrast between light and dark (Louvre, n.d.) Using a candle for many of his works added rich contrast to his paintings. In this painting contrast is enhanced by the strong light reflected on Christs face that in turn appears to light up the room. This creates the focal point of the painting and the result is one of striking visual impact. The instrument that Joseph is using to drill the wood reflects the shape of the cross. This, along with the layout of the wood on the floor, which is set cross-like to the seated Jesus, foreshadows the crucifixion. These elements refer to three devotions that were particularly important in Lorraine in the 17th century through the motivation of the Franciscans, Saint Joseph, the Infant Jesus, and the Cross, and unifies the religious symbolism of the composition (Louvre, n.d.) Evaluate the quality of the artwork based on the elements and principles of visual design. Analyze and interpret what the artist intended to communicate through this artwork, including the significance of the title, if any. Georges de La Tour is best known for the nocturnal light effects which he developed much further than his artistic predecessors had done, and transferred their use in the genre subjects in the paintings of the Dutch to the religious painting in his (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2014). He was involved in aFranciscan-led religious revival in Lorraine, and over the course of his career he moved to painting almost entirely religious subjects (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2014). Based on this information, and the lack of factual historical data of his life, La Tours artwork seems to be a result of political and environmental influences of his era. Unlike Caravaggio, who was his greatest influence, his religious paintings lack dramatic effects. This composition is a careful geometrical and simplified painting of forms, but with a high degree of originality in color and symbolism. Its simplicity extracts both contemplative quiet and wonder, but lacks the reverence and divinity of better-known allegorical artwork. Assess the cultural and historical value of this artwork. Does it qualify as great art in your opinion? Justify your answer. As Aristotle once said, The aim of art is to represent not the outward appearance of things, but their inward significance.(Common Cause, 2013) Great art should make the viewer feel great emotion, and this composition lacks passion for the subject matter. Although it is a representational religious painting of Joseph and Christ as a child, the painting

Confucius and Aristotle on Virtue Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Confucius and Aristotle on Virtue - Essay Example Confucius and Aristotle on Virtue Similarly, the essay suggests ideas of virtue, which can apply to ethics in the contemporary society that has diverse workplaces. According to the concept of ‘virtue ethics’ by Aristotle, it is challenging to attain morality in a universal code. That indicates that the justified thing to do in a specific situation is what a virtuous individual would do. Aristotle defines virtue as the quality of character that is essential and ideal in ensuring a life well lived. In defining this concept, Aristotle focused on characterizing the good life as that lived under the influence of or in accordance with virtue. On the other hand, Confucius focused on going a notch higher to the process of defining the concept with the intention of escaping the potential circularity of virtue ethics. He further provided a starting point towards understanding how to achieve a good life. From that perspective, there is not a single, universal moral code. Nevertheless, there is a ‘root of humanity’ and, thus, the perfect opportunity for the attainment of closest loving relationships. Similar to most Greek philosophers, Aristotle focused on viewing virtue as a form of language. From that perspective, self-examination is essential in the generation of self-knowledge that eventually leads to the realisation of the good life. It indicates that knowledge comes out as a mean, which is relative to individuals. In Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle focused on the integration of a patient, careful and descriptive approach to examining moral philosophy.

SUPPLY AND DEMAND Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

SUPPLY AND DEMAND - Essay Example An increase of firms offering the same product lowers demand since the customers can meet their needs by choosing from various companies. However, a decrease in the number of enterprises providing substitute products would result in an increase in demand. The quality of the product is another significant factor that can cause a change in the demand for the Tropical Smoothie Cafà © products. An increase in quality would increase demand, and a decline  in  quality would lead to a decrease in demand (Arnold, 2008).Essentially, customers will always go for quality products. In this regard, the firm must enhance quality production to promote demand. Some of the factors that would affect change in supply include the price of inputs and the level of production technology used (Abdul, 2002). An increase in the  cost  of inputs results in the decline of supply. Essentially, a rise in the cost of inputs means that the firm has to spend more to maintain the same supply as it was before the price change. In this regard, the firm might not be in a position to meet the addition cost and, therefore, end up ordering for less supplies. On the contrary, a decrease in the price of inputs leads to increased supplies. The level of production technology also affects the change in supply. Use of an advanced and efficient technology would lead to increased supply (Boyes & Melvin, 2014).  . Apparently, efficient technology speeds up the production process, and this increases the total output. On the other hand, the use of outdated and inefficient technology results in reduced supply. Essentially, defective technology is likely to cause delays in productions. The delays in productions lead to reduced output and, therefore, reduced supply. The quantity demanded can be changed by manipulating the price of the product. For instance, all other factors held constant, a decline in rice leads to an increase in

Employment relation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 1

Employment relation - Essay Example Accordingly he found that in US, employment relations is seen as the means through which the workers get rights and benefits which are related to their work and in turn linked to labour laws and social security. The state plays a very important role in employment relations. They either directly or indirectly influence the employment relations in a nation. Directly in a manner by passing different legislation and regulations designed specifically for the benefits of employment relations and indirectly by providing an environment where there are boundaries which are to be observed and taken into consideration when shaping out the relations between employers and employees. The main objectives of the state in employment relations as achieved through the various roles the state act as. These roles are as a legislator, as a peacemaker, as an employer, as an economic manager and last but not the least its ideological role. Over time the importance of these roles varies in employment relations. The main objectives of the state in employment relations are complex at times. As the state is responsible for maintaining stability, to administer the income policies, in time of low employment and acquisition for skills the state needs to be more careful. The state is responsible for maintaining the parity of bargaining power between the employers and the employees/trade unions. The State has the right to make and enforce rules and legislations. One of the most important responsibilities of state is to provide a legal framework and formulate the boundaries and make sure all the labour management relations are conducted within the framework. The State has the right to set the policy guidelines and promotes specific actions and take initiatives that are linked to employees, trade unions or the employers by empowering them, giving them power of social

NAFTA (SLP) Module5 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

NAFTA (SLP) Module5 - Essay Example problems created by NAFTA continue to affect some of the member states – a problem that has not been received well by critics such as Ralph and Pat. Reasons for opposing NAFTA include the loss of jobs that has affected the USA. It is estimated that since 1995, NAFTA is responsible for the loss of some 765,000 jobs. This loss of jobs has also created a ripple effect on the economic wellbeing of the laid off workers. After the loss of jobs, finding new jobs has a 23% less pay within the same industries they used to work. Additionally, investment on manufacturing industries has increased Mexican problem in that, around the maquiladora zones along the Mexico-US border, pollution and poor disposal of waste has threaten to cause adverse environmental issues (Global Exchange, 2011). In the USA, NAFTA has been viewed as a free trade agreement that has caused multiple employment and investment issues. For example, a study by the Cornell University shows that two-thirds of manufacturing and communications companies have threatened their employees that they would move their operations outside the USA. This move aims at exporting well-paying jobs from the USA to either Mexico or Canada where labor is expected to be cheaper. In this case, more employees are left jobless or underpaid as companies thrive to create value through the free trade agreement (Workorg, 2010). NAFTA is an export dependent trade agreement which affects the resources of the nations involved. For example, natural resources such as forests and fish have been overexploited to settle trade debts among member states. Mexico has been on the receiving end as 15 US-based wood products’ companies have established operations in Mexico drastically increased logging. Guerrero, a Mexican State has lost 40 percent of her forest cover following the establishment of US-based wood products’ companies. Family farmers face the adverse effects of the NAFTA free trade doctrine. It is seen that NAFTA has influenced

The Role of Rearmament in International Relations Essay

The Role of Rearmament in International Relations - Essay Example After the World War I, many nations were disarming themselves to concentrate on rebuilding as the war had destroyed a lot of resources in terms of public infrastructure, killed a lot of people and the economies of most nations were on the downfall. Germany on the other hand left the league of nations and begun rearming itself again. This caused a threat to other nations in the region they could no sit back and wait to be attacked. 1The UK also embarked on rearmament program because Germany was becoming a threat. In the middle of 1930s, the British government obtained the biplanes to be used by the Royal Air Force and this was quite different from that which was being used in the First World War. Other weaponry obtained by the rearmament program included hawker hurricane, battleships, aircraft carriers and super marine spitfire. This came to be useful to them during the Second World War. 2 The end of the First World War was marked by the signing of the accord termed as the treaty of Versailles in the year 1919. The treaty was assented to by France, Italy, the Great Britain and not the US since it was later to draft its own accord with Germany in 1921. Many historians view the signing of the Versailles treaty as the major driving force that lead to the Second World War. ... Rearmament in the Rest of the World It's quite obvious that the most war oriented nations are those that spend a lot on rearmament obtaining more dangerous weaponry and military personnel. Germany has been criticized a lot for stimulating or rather initiating the Second World War. This is because by the time other nations were disarming and concentrating on development to recover what had been lost in the war, the Germans did the contrary and started building new weapons. In reaction to that, other countries like the UK begun to build weapons in fear that the Germans would attack them as the memories of the First World War were still fresh in their minds. 3 Hitler decided to violate the Versailles treaty claiming it was imposed to the German people. He called on all Germans to reunite and rearm and he stated clearly that the German would be the centre of the Europe and use the land to produce the food that the nation needed. For him to achieve this, Adolph Hitler realized that he needed a stronger army, than what he had inherited from his predecessor. He ordered the then army general to prepare an army of about 300,000 men, the ministry in charge of military was ordered to build 1,000 war planes and more military barracks were built as well. When the French refused his proposal to rearm, Hitler led the Nazi Germany out of the Geneva conference and was seen by many leaders as not being a supporter of external democracy and foreign policy. This led to reaction from other nations to follow suit. Japan was one of the nations to initiate a rearmament program. In 1936, its expenditure on national defense was estimated to be about 307 million dollars. France spent 716 million, the United Kingdom spent

NAFTA (SLP) Module5 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

NAFTA (SLP) Module5 - Essay Example problems created by NAFTA continue to affect some of the member states – a problem that has not been received well by critics such as Ralph and Pat. Reasons for opposing NAFTA include the loss of jobs that has affected the USA. It is estimated that since 1995, NAFTA is responsible for the loss of some 765,000 jobs. This loss of jobs has also created a ripple effect on the economic wellbeing of the laid off workers. After the loss of jobs, finding new jobs has a 23% less pay within the same industries they used to work. Additionally, investment on manufacturing industries has increased Mexican problem in that, around the maquiladora zones along the Mexico-US border, pollution and poor disposal of waste has threaten to cause adverse environmental issues (Global Exchange, 2011). In the USA, NAFTA has been viewed as a free trade agreement that has caused multiple employment and investment issues. For example, a study by the Cornell University shows that two-thirds of manufacturing and communications companies have threatened their employees that they would move their operations outside the USA. This move aims at exporting well-paying jobs from the USA to either Mexico or Canada where labor is expected to be cheaper. In this case, more employees are left jobless or underpaid as companies thrive to create value through the free trade agreement (Workorg, 2010). NAFTA is an export dependent trade agreement which affects the resources of the nations involved. For example, natural resources such as forests and fish have been overexploited to settle trade debts among member states. Mexico has been on the receiving end as 15 US-based wood products’ companies have established operations in Mexico drastically increased logging. Guerrero, a Mexican State has lost 40 percent of her forest cover following the establishment of US-based wood products’ companies. Family farmers face the adverse effects of the NAFTA free trade doctrine. It is seen that NAFTA has influenced

Organizational psychology Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Organizational psychology - Assignment Example Administers process organizational tasks and establish work environments. Leaders are mainly mandated with execution of administrative duties, inspiring supporters and creation of underlying common managerial cultures and tenets (Leonard et al, 2013). While managers deal with the underlying intricacy, leaders deal with initiating and adjusting underlying change (Aamodt, 2013). Leaders are majorly mandated with undertaking tasks that pertain to setting a way or idea, aligning populace to share goals, collaborating and motivating. Approaches of studying leadership in I/O psychology are widely categories into Leader-focused, Contingency-focused and Follower-focused approaches. Leader-focused approaches mainly focus on the organizational leaders in determining the underlying features of real leadership. Trait approach defines effective leaders to being having particular traits that are lacks in the ineffective leaders (Hersen & Thomas, 2003). The approach is mainly utilized in predicting leader emergence. Leader emergence is mainly predicted via analysis of the traits such as high intelligence, elevated desires for dominance, lofty self-motivation and communally perceptive (Aamodt, 2013). Behavioral approach as a leader-focused approach mainly emphases on the prevailing behaviors that differentiate effective from the corresponding ineffective leaders. Two main categories of leadership are contemplation and instigating structure. Behavior that is related with category of consideration pertains depiction of subordinates that they leaders value and care about them (Leonard et al, 2013). Moreover, behaviors that are related to initiating structure entail simpl ification of the task performance of the prevailing groups (Aamodt & Aamodt, 2007). Power and influence is also approach of leader-focused that mainly pertains to the means on how effective leaders influence people in line with the underlying organization’s mission and objectives (Hersen & Thomas, 2003). The degree of influence of a leader relies on the social power and corresponding probable in regard to manipulating their subordinates (Messick & Kramer, 2005). The major foundations of supremacy entail forcible power, authentic power, referent power, reward power and informational power. Leaders normally utilize numerous diverse tactics in manipulating others in their respective organization. The common tactics mainly entail rational inducement, inspiring appeal, session, ingratiation exchange, alliance, individual appeal, and pressure and legitimating (Hersen & Thomas, 2003). Contingency-focused approaches of leadership are the most dominant and are mainly based on the lead er’s efficacy on their capability in assessing and adapting to their behavior. The theories within this approach assume that the prevailing leaders are capable of reading the underlying a circumstance and dexterously employ a leadership style that warrant the individuals connections in behavior task at hand (Lowenberg et al, 1998). The main theories in the Contingency-focused approaches are Fiedler’s Contingency theory that outline that effectiveness of a leader depends on the underlying collaboration amidst their features and corresponding characteristics of the condition (Aamodt & Aamodt,

History of Russian Thought Essay Example for Free

History of Russian Thought Essay Russian political and social thought remains a mystery to many historians, often insisting that Russia neatly follow western European categories of development and thought. Rejecting this odd sort of Euro-centrism is the first task of the intellectual historian, and from this point of view has Walicki made his career as the west’s premier historian of Russian political theory. Given the fact that this book is 467 pages, it is not this review’s intention to summarize the contents of this work, but rather to concern itself with method and the approach to this complex and ill-understood subject. A good place to start might be the basic class distinctions in Russian society. It is no accident that the book begins with two highly related objects: the rise of â€Å"enlightenment† thought under Catherine II (the Great) and, concomitant with this rise, the development of an elitist, aristocratic opposition to the crown. This start of some sort of Enlightenment-based criticism of monarchy derives both from western sources, that specifically of Montesquieu, as well as ancient Russian sources, that specifically of the ancient boyar duma, or elite assembly of the land. Hence, the stage is set for the remainder of the book: the constant fluctuation, often confusing, between modern, western models of political critique pleasantly seasoned with large doses of ancient political institutions. It is never made clear, and it is likely impossible to make clear, which element took center stage, the â€Å"west† or the ancient institutions. Among the Russian Slavophiles, major critics of Peter the Great and his western reforms, it is made clear. The Slavophiles, a specifically mystic, and Christian movement, almost Rousseauian in its basic social theory, based their approach on the criticism of the crown on the ancient Russian institutions of the peasant commune, the boyar Duma and the ancient piety of the Russian Church. Hence, early on, Walicki crates a typological distinction that defines the entire work: that between the more or less western-style, liberal rejection of monarchical absolutism, and a more peasant-based and communal criticism of the centralization of royal power. Neither approach rejects monarchy per se, but they criticize the development of the Petrine state, that is the centralized, expensive, militarized and bureaucratic absolutism introduced into Russia by Peter the Great as incompatible with Russian traditions. In terms of this typology, the most extreme of the first group might be the Decembrist movement, especially in the radical masonic societies of Paul Pestel. Unlike many historians, Walicki refuses to ignore the powerful part played by Masons in 18th and 19th century Russian history. The Decembrists, like nearly all opposition movements in the mid 19th century, was both Masonic and aristocratic, having few roots among the common people. Ultimately, Pestel rejected monarchy altogether, demanding an aristocratic based popular assembly elected by full and universal suffrage without property qualifications. He promised Poland its independence, and even became the first Russian Zionist, holding that Jews who refused to assimilate into the new Russia would be sent to Palestine to create a new Jewish nation with government assistance. He was joined in the revolutionary effort by the Society of United Slavs, also aristocratic and military based, who fought with Pestel over ideological concerns, chief of which was the place of old Russian institutions in the new society. The United Slavs, slightly less radical then Pestel’s organization, sought to base the new democratic order on the old Russian institutions of the duma and collective farming arrangements. Now, while the Decembrists ultimately failed, largely due to internal divisions and their lack of understanding of Russian conditions, the real significance of these movements was to give the aristocracy a public program run by semi-secret organizations, in the Decembrist case, military societies. The very fact that these groups were wealthy and aristocratic proves their limitations, and does show, as Walicki insists, that there is no distinction between class and political ideology, since political ideology was largely dictated by class status, at least in the sense that Russian nobles viewed themselves as heir to old Russia rather than to Petrine Russia. But just what they meant by â€Å"old Russia† is another story, and itself is a powerful subtext to this work. The approach to Freemasonry in Russia is worth a review in itself. Rarely dealt with in a serious way, the Masons are depicted by Walicki as the last refuge of the old aristocracy both accepting and rejecting the western Enlightenment. The failure in this otherwise excellent section is whether or not the public statements of the Masonic organizers were truly the belief of the order, or were simply exoteric utterances of the â€Å"initiated† speaking to a â€Å"backward† society. Nevertheless, Masonry (and Walicki holds that these were mostly funded by foreign sources) became a sort of pseudo-religion for the alienated old aristocrats long pushed out of power by the distant, upstart Petersburg bureaucracy. It is clear that the Masons were strictly clubs for the wealthy, sought to usher in a new â€Å"golden age† of history and looked down upon finance. These rather odd confluences of ideas simply tell us what little the Masons ere willing to speak about in public, or, even more, the fact that the aristocracy was using Masonry to challenge the organization of the Petersburg bureaucracy. Either way, masonry was a means whereby the old aristocracy could organize their forces and pool resources, but whether there was a political program that was basically agreed upon is another matter. Pestel’s group came the closest. It is rare that the western Enlightenment is imported wholesale into Russia. In fact, Pestel is an exception in that regard. At first, the famed Russian polemicist Peter Chaadaev held that western Europe should be imported to Russia, since, as he became famous for saying, â€Å"Russia has no history. Chaadaev made himself infamous in Russia by holding that there was no â€Å"Russian history† until Peter the Great made elite Russia European, slyly assuming that historical nations are European, technically advanced and based on baconian scientific models of administration. But his fascination with such things faded early on in his career, as both the revolutionary fervor of France and the dominance of the bourgeois repelled him. For Chaadaev, â€Å"Old Europe† was that of the medieval aristocracy rather than the modern, revolutionary bourgeois. Later figures like Alexander Herzen began their own careers with the same approach, only to actually live in England and France in exile, eventually returning to Russia with a loathing for European fashions and political ideologies. But all of these distinctions can be brought under our original methodological heading: the aristocratic opposition to the crown and the forms that this upper class agitation can take. The problem with this approach is that it leaves out the peasantry as a politically active part of the population. The fact that Walicki has no reference to the Old Believers and their strict, Russian Orthodox anarchism that numbered about 20 million followers by the middle of the 19th century is a major, glaring fault in the work itself. But, without saying so explicitly, this work seems to revolve around the aristocracy and the modes that their opposition to the Petrine state took over time. But the positive side to this approach is that it proves, contrary to typical courses in political theory, that radicalism in Russia was an upper class phenomenon and had few roots with the peasants, who were inclined to the Old Belief. Class status here meant that the higher one found oneself in the economic or aristocratic hierarchy, the more you were inclined to oppose the state (which itself, was based on a service bureaucracy rather than the old aristocracy) and the more one was to lean to radical theories of either economics or politics. The smattering of detail this review offers seeks to suggest that the aristocratic splits in Russian society are responsible for the development of its political ideas. Even more, if a thesis of this work can be found, this is likely it. Masonry, materialism, communitarianism, and even Marxism (though much later) all stem from the various battles among aristocratic and otherwise upper class factions. What they had in common was that they were wealthy, urban and sought to bring about a semi-utopia by force and revolution, bringing the â€Å"dark masses† to a â€Å"true knowledge† of their destiny and social importance. Hence, all of these movements opposed the monarchy in one sense or another. With very few exceptions, these movements all began rather enamored with western ideas, only to be repelled by them once actual contact with westerners became a fact. But the enlightenment was not rejected, only dressed in Russian clothing. Only the Leninists broke this mold, importing Marxism from Germany with few modifications, without the slightest concession to Russia as a cultural entity. The very fact that Leninism was so bizarre in Russian history shows how alien it was from currents of even the most radical thought in Russia and hence, how it was forced to impose itself by violence. What seems to link all Russian radical ideas together is that they were not Leninists, in the sense that they all looked to Russian tradition for the germs of radical institution-building. Hence, one can conclude by holding that Russian radicalism sought to build enlightenment ideas on old Russian institutions. A project destroyed by Lenin, largely never to be revived.

Impact of WW1 on Ernest Hemingways Poetry

Impact of WW1 on Ernest Hemingways Poetry 1.1 Introduction: When World War1 broke out in 1914, it ended almost 100 years of relative peace in Europe. America at that time adopted a policy of neutrality and isolation regarding war. This approach was fully supported by the people of America at that time but later, in 1917 the German submarines entered the US marine territories against which the US government finally had to break the ice. So, as a reaction to German invasion America finally launched a counter attack and consequently the whole nation plunged into the great World War1. Unaware of the consequences America unwillingly had to participate in the greatest holocaust of the world known as the World War1. America would never have become a part of World War1 and have stuck to its neutral policy but the German submarines defied the US marine laws and entered the US territories on January 9th, 1917. Woodrow Wilson the US president at that time finally asked congress to declare war on Germany and it was April 2nd, 1917. As a result of this legitimate order America joined the war along with the other Allies. On the other hand the continent of Europe was under the attack of war where World War1 rose like a wall of blood red mountains. Despite having massive military and great weapons war killed ten million Europeans, most of them were young soldiers, nurses and subjects and all became the victims of ultimate death brought by heavy war weapons, flying jets and bullets swimming in the air. It was deaths command everywhere and when death comes to its empire it kills all what it finds. Similar was the situation in America where men, women and children all were on the mercy of a single bullet. Four million American soldiers were killed in war and almost equal number of civilians got killed and injured men, women and children left homeless due to the great wreckage all around with the spread of epidemic disease that resulted in the cause of further deaths of many civilians. It was a chaotic situation after the war ended in 1919. People were completely disillusioned and stunned by the aftermaths of the World War1. They were hopeless and unaware of their futures. The basic matrix of life was completely dissolved by the cruel war and human civilization became a victim of demolition. People lost their faith in basic norms and values of life as war took away with it their hopes, happiness and loved ones too. They seemed completely lost with having no basic aim behind being alive. Young men and women of America started living like herds of sheep and were spending life just for the sake of killing time. Eventually the war ended but it left behind its impact on the mind of masses and its terror got stored into the minds of the post-war generations. People became mentally sick and even after the war was over they felt its aftershocks later on in their lives. World War1 was the greatest trauma of the lives of a great number of Americans who survived the brutal attack of the war. The post-war American race became a victim of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder and other mental disorders which were the result of the shocks given by the World War1. PTSD is a severe kind of state of mind after a great shock or accident that leads a human being to become a patient of insomnia and several other mental retardations. Almost each community and every class in Americas post-war society became a victim of PTSD which became a cause of disbelief and disgracing of the traditional life style on part of American generation. Watching all the above mentioned events and incidents in the midst of the battle fields and among the victims of the World War1 was present Ernest Hemingway, an American Red Cross ambulance driver who witnessed and used all these war events and post-war condition of the society as a backdrop of his literary works. Hemingway represented the American society and a post-war perturbed American generation which is known as the Lost Generation of America. Hemingway being a spokesman of the lost generation, masterly managed to give a unique account of events and incidents that took place in the war and changed the lives of millions of Americans. Hemingways main concern was the American society and its members who were suffering from a post-war disturbed psychological state of mind. Aiken (1926) writes in his essay as edited by Meyers (1982) as follows: The half dozen characters, all of whom belong to the curious and sad little world of disillusioned and aimless expatriates who make what home they can in the cafes of Paris, are seen perfectly and unsentimentally by Mr. Hemingway and are put before us with a maximum of economy 1. (90) As we know wars have always been a cause of destruction, devastation and demolition on a great scale since the descent of mankind on earth. There is no doubt that wars shatter the matrix of human civilization and bring forth despair, death and disease for mankind. Surpassing all the previous wars, the great World-Wars dismantled the hopes, dreams and races on a large scale and nations falling victims of disillusionment, aimlessness and mental stress and physical disorders. One of the greatest diseases that damage the brain after a war is ‘Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, a severe state of human mind after a shock or a trauma. Durand and Barlow (2000) comment on PTSD as follows: In recent years we have heard a great deal about the severe and long-lasting emotional disorders that can occur after a variety of traumatic events. Perhaps the most impressive traumatic event is war, but emotional disorders also occur after physical assault (particularly rape), car accidents, natural catastrophes, or the sudden death of a loved one. The emotional disorder that follows a trauma is known as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) 2. (131) Then I. Sarason and Sarason (2006) in their book on Abnormal Psychology comment: PTSD involves an extreme experience, such as war, a natural catastrophe (for instance an earthquake), a physical assault, or a serious car crash. The traumas range from those that are directly experienced (e.g., being threatened with death) to those that are witnessed (e.g., family member being threatened with death). The onset of the clinical condition in posttraumatic disorders varies from soon after the trauma to long after it has occurred. Most studies have found higher rates among women than men. The prevalence of PTSD in the general population is about 0.5% in men and 1.2% in women (Andreasen and Black, 2001). Because life today is considered to be high in trauma for the population in general, it is estimated that Americans currently have a 5 to 10% chance of developing PTSD at sometime during their lifetimes. The combination of vulnerability factors and exposures earlier in life to traumatic experiences increases the likelihood of PTSD. For instance, having been abused as a ch ild or have had other previous traumatic experiences increases the risk for PTSD, especially for individuals who generally have emotional difficulties, such as anxiety and depression 3. (256) Now keeping in mind the American society which is the sole area of our research, we found the reason behind PTSD in American society and the characters introduced to us by Ernest Hemingway in his works. And that reason was the First World War and its aftermath. The lives of millions of people were badly influenced by World War I in America and in Europe as well. The great holocaust changed the whole concept of life by destroying the basic norms and traditional beliefs in all parts of the world. Priestley (1962) comments on World War I as follows: In the very middle of this age the First World War rises like a wall of blood-red mountains. Its frenzied butchery, indefensible even on a military basis, killed at least ten million Europeans, mostly young and free from obvious physical defects. After being dressed in uniform, fed and drilled, cheered and cried over before they were packed into their cattle-trunks, these ten million were then filled with hot lead, ripped apart by shell splinters, blown to bits, bayoneted in the belly, choked with poison gas, suffocated in mud, trampled to death or drowned, buried in collapsing dugouts, dropped out of burning aero planes, or allowed to die of diseases, after rotting to long in trenches that they shared with syphilitic rats and typhus-infested lice. Death, having come into his empire, demands the best, and got it 4. (321) Almost all the works of Ernest Hemingway are a result of his first-hand experience of war and his staunch observation of life around him. Most of his works prove to be autobiographical in nature and Cooperman (1964) comments on autobiographical nature of Hemingways works as follows: Three elements in Hemingways life shaped many of his attitudes, and indeed shaped much of his works: the fact that in World War I, he suffered a painful and terrible mortar wound, which made him conscious of the dread possibilities of the loss of manhood; the fact that his father committed suicide; and the fact of his growing old†¦ and the fears created by old age itself. Similar to Frederic Henry in A Farewell to Arms, Jake Barnes in The Sun Also Rises, and Santiago in The Old Man and the Sea, Hemingway was afflicted with the fear of letting go and the fear of thinking. The nightmare of chaos, of passivity, loss of will, loss of initiative, loss of masculine role was a terrible nightmare, and one to be avoided at all costs 5. (85-92) It has already been observed that all the Hemingway fiction comes from his war experiences and the aftermath of the war. Many critics have commented on this experience-based technique of Ernest Hemingway. According to Putnam (2006), Tobias Wolff at the Hemingway centennial celebration said, â€Å"Hemingways great war work deals with aftermath. It deals with what happens to the soul in war and how people deal with that afterward.† Putnam (2006) further comments: No American writer is more associated with writing about war in the early 20th century than Ernest Hemingway. He experienced it firsthand, wrote dispatches from innumerable frontlines, and used war as a backdrop for many of his most memorable works 6. Ernest Hemingway is best known as the representative of the â€Å"Lost Generation† of America. He as an artist and writer of literature selected characters from the post-war American society as he was himself a member of that society and he observed it staunchly. Most of his works are based on his personal experience of the society and that is why he is often himself present in his novels as a leading character. Asselineau (1980) comments on Hemingways fiction as follows: It was indeed a â€Å"lost generation† in more senses than one. Yet, Hemingway among others survived the Great War for over forty years and, after appearing as the cynical and disillusioned Byron of twentieth century, ultimately turned into a new â€Å"teacher of athletes† and a â€Å"professeur d energie† a la Barres. A rather surprising change and a very spectacular recovery, which we can follow step by step in his works, since his novels make up an interminable Bildungsroman whose hero is always himself 7. While going through the works of Ernest Hemingway one realizes that Hemingway has very skillfully managed to present before us a group of expatriates who had left their homeland America after getting disillusioned by the war and were living as useless people in different parts of Europe under a special code of life. Asselineau (1980) comments as follows: All the veterans of foreign wars who appeared in Hemingways fiction are united by a common belief in an unwritten code. They are morally and physically very tough. They can take it. They keep a stiff upper lip. They grin and bear it. They refuse to discuss their own emotion and despise loquacious swaggerers like Robert Cohn. They hate gushing. They believe in self control and self imposed discipline. They have reached true wisdom in the etymological meaning of the word â€Å"wisdom†. They are those who know- who know that they are mortal and that sooner or later life ends in death. They know that man- whatever he does- will sooner or later be crushed by the hostile forces which surround him and is bound to be defeated- defeated, but not vanquished, for, like Pascal, they believe in the dignity of man, â€Å"a mere reed, and the weakest that can be found on earth, but even when the universe crushes him, man is still nobler than what kills him, for he knows that he is dying, wh ile the advantage that the universe has over him, the universe is unaware of it.† 8 (1844) High (1986) has also commented on the lost generation as follows: Man young people the post-World War 1 period had â€Å"lost† their American ideals. At the same time America â€Å"lost† many fine young writers- like e.e. cummings and Hemingway- because they had moved to Paris. Fitz Geralds first novel, This Side of Paradise (1920), describes this new generation. They had â€Å"grown up to find all gods dead, all wars fought, all faiths in man shaken.† Two concerns now filled their lives: â€Å"the fear of poverty and the worship of success.† 9 (143) Hemingways The Sun Also Rises proves to be the best of his works and it was also his first proper novel on lost generation of America. The novel stands as a monument over which the whole drama of the lost generation of America has been carved. It was Gertrude Stein the American authoress and Hemingways mentor who for the very first time told E. Hemingway: â€Å"You are all a lost generation.† Hemingway was struck by the comment and used it as an epigraph and also the theme of his first novel, Fiesta (called The Sun Also Rises in US. Ousby (1979) in his essay The Lost Generation comments as follows: Today the ‘lost Generation has come to seem an over-worked catchphrase. Used indiscriminately in its own era, the title has been claimed by successive generations of writers and applied retrospectively to earlier schools, such as the American naturalists. Yet the term remains useful in discussing the novelists of 1920s, if only because epitomizes the way they liked to see themselves. 10 (205) Ousby (1979) further explains the characteristics of the writers of lost generation in following words: Their unique and common experience was a disillusion bred by the First World War. They returned from that conflict to a society whose values seemed hollow and artificial by comparison with the harsh realities of the battle-field. Their alienation from America often took the form of exile and expatriation: Hemingway and Dos Passos spent most of their early adult lives in Europe, while Scott Fitzgerald and Thomas Wolfe were frequent visitors. It would hardly be an exaggeration to say that Paris became the extra-parliamentary centre of American culture in 1920s. It was the shrine to which most ambitious young writers of the era made their pilgrimage. 11 (206) Ousby (1979) in the same essay tells us the factors which affected the writings of the writers of lost generation in the following words: Disillusioned with society in general and America in particular, the novelists of the Lost Generation cultivated a romantic self-absorption- a deliberate retreat into private emotion. They became precocious experts in tragedy, suffering and anguish. The early novels of Hemingway and Scott Fitzgerald are peopled by sad, bitter young men who have lost all illusions at an early age; Amory Blaine of This Side of Paradise and Jake Barnes of Fiesta are the prime examples. They are haunted by war memories and by images of violence, cynical about idealism in any form, and given to only the most cryptic and laconic expressions of feeling. 12 (206) Ousby (1979) also comments on the characters introduced to us by the writers of lost generation as follows: The characters of Lost Generation novels live in restless pursuit of excitement and pleasure. Their Europe is not the gallery of cultural objects found in Hawthornes and Jamess fiction: it is a Europe of elegant restaurants, picturesque bars and intriguing local customs. They delight in kicking over the conventional traces (and in the resultant cries of middle- class horror), indulging in heavy drinking and casual sex. 13 (207) It was only Ernest Hemingway, who among the most famous writers of lost generation of America has been able to won the title of the avant-garde writer of the lost generation. His novel The Sun Also Rises was recommended all over the world as a true story featuring real people from the lost generation. This novel also made Hemingway a world-known celebrity. Nagel (1996) in his essay Brett and the Other Women in The Sun Also Rises comments: This book made him, almost instantly, an international celebrity identified with an entire generation, torn by war and grieving throughout the Roaring Twenties for their lost romantic idealism. Although he was somewhat ill-suited for the role, because he was a hard-working young writer with a wife and a son to support, he came to be regarded as the spokesman for American expatriates, those disillusioned and disaffected artists, writers, and intellectuals who spent the decade on the Left Bank in Paris. 14 (87) In his novel The Sun Also Rises, Hemingway uses Jake as a puppet, a narrator and also his famous code hero. Jake narrates the whole story which Hemingways eye saw sincerely. Nagel (1996) again in his essay Brett and the Other Women in The Sun Also Rises comments on the character of Jake Barnes as follows: He is certainly one of the most isolated and vulnerable figures in American literature, and he narrates out of his disillusionment and pain, his grief evident throughout. As he says about himself, all he wants is to figure out how he can live in the world. It would seem that telling what happened is part of the process of learning how to live in the special circumstances of his world. 15 (90) Nagel (1996) in his essay Brett and the Other Women in The Sun Also Rises comments on Jake being a representative of lost generation in following words: Hemingway humanized this dichotomy in the character of Jake Barnes by creating a man who bears the wounds of the war in a profoundly personal way yet combines his disillusionment with traditional American values of hard work and just compensation. It is surely an oversimplification to see Jake as an uncompromised representative of lost generation radicalism, for he exhibits much of the midwestern values he sometimes satirizes†¦ Above all, it is his judgment that provides the normative sensibility for assessing the people and events of the novel. But to grasp the meaning of what he relates, it is essential to understand the psychological context in which he tells it. 16 (91) Lady Ashley Brett is another important character from the lost generation. She is pure nymphomaniac sort of a woman and is a true representative of the women of the early 20th century. According to Nagel (1996), â€Å"Brett is by no means the first representation of a sexually liberated, free-thinking woman in American literature but rather an embodiment of what became known as the â€Å"New Woman† in nineteenth-century fiction.† Nagel (1996) further says: Brett is not only a women but an extraordinary woman for the age, a point not clear unless she is considered in historical context. Form this perspective, the women in The Sun Also Rises might be regarded as more interesting then the men. The role of women in society had been changing with each decade for a century, always with a good deal of social conflict and ideological struggle. 17 (92) Keeping in mind the agony of Jake due to his relation with Brett, we may easily nominate him as the most suffering person in the novel. His love with Brett makes him feel the pain of his wound which he got during the war, because he could not physically fulfill what he felt. According to Nagel (1996): From the beginning, the world is out of sexual order, the social evening is a parody of erotic potential, and the deeper irony is that this pathology is at the very heart of Jake and Bretts relationship. Their conversation in the taxi reveals the central problem of the novel: that they one another, that they feel that there is nothing they can do about it, that it is painful and destructive for them to be together. Whatever else happens is driven by this fact, and it is impossible for them to change it. The central dilemma for Jake is whether he can change the situation by finding some satisfaction in life. The problem for Brett is that she needs companionship of a man, and no one but Jake can offer her much beyond fleeting sexual pleasure. 18 (94) Jake truly deserves pity because he is the one who lost the most he had during war and even afterwards. His love with Brett gives him nothing except pain and he is also unable to sleep at night due to the agony brought by his love for Brett. Nagel (1996) comments: The â€Å"loss† in the â€Å"lost generation† is sustained primarily by him, and it makes for powerful fiction. The novel works, ultimately, because Jake, in anomalous circumstances, nevertheless presents a normative sensibility in the story he tells. He emerges as a man of intelligence, humor and good sense who lost more than he deserved in World War 1 but learned how to make a life for himself. 19 (105) According to Martin (1987): Jake Barnes and his friends- all of them- are a group because they share the same beliefs and experiences. Except for Robert Cohn, whose differences are less heinous than Jake sometimes thinks them to be, the displaced Americans and Britons are moving through a festival period in their lives, punctuating their aimless existence abroad with an organized visit to Spain for the bullfights. 20 (07) The characters introduced to us by Hemingway live under a peculiar but yet an extraordinary code of life. They behave like a community of people sharing similar set of thoughts and beliefs. Martin (1987) in her New Essays on The Sun Also Rises says: A key theme is the notion of community: These are people who understand each other, the rules they live by, and the reasons for their choices. Only someone outside that community will have difficulty with the social code. Count Mippipopolous may be a stranger to the group, but he understands the code and fits into the society. Robert Cohn, although he spends much time with the members of the group and thinks himself a special friend of both Jake and Brett, never manages to assimilate the rules. Jake, however, is clearly in charge- of the plans, the guest list, the activities, and the emotional nuance. He is the apparent hero of the novel, and his approval or disapproval sets the pattern for the other characters reaction to things. 20 (08) All the characters in the novel The Sun Also Rises seem dissatisfied and unhappy and most of the time they feel themselves useless. Martin (1987) comments on this condition of the characters in following words: There are many reasons for these characters unhappiness. To dwell on â€Å"irony and pity† is just a pastime; the real issues are the lack of alignment between profession and occupation, between lovers, between vacation and work, between ideals of Spain and France, between nature and the commercial. As full of disjunctures as a picture puzzle, The Sun Also Rises still presents a story whole, its fragments necessarily scattered throughout the narrative, and readers accept the fragmentation as one the marks of Hemingways truth. They seize on the purity of Pedro Romero, the wit of the bemused Mike Campbell, the taciturn acceptances of Jake Barnes, the flip bravado of Brett Ashley as the symbols of the characters who survive the onslaught of real life. 21 (16) Chapter 2 Life and Works of Ernest Hemingway 2.1 Birth and Parentage: Ernest Miller Hemingway was born in Oak Park, Illinois, on July 21st, 1899. His father was a doctor. He spent much of his time in his early days roaming about in the woods, rifle on his shoulders, or rowing out across the water of a large lake in quest of big fish. Although his family owned a cottage on a lake, he usually slept outside in a tent, the dim light of a kerosene lantern flickering long hours into the night over his temporary cot as he laid reading. 2.1.1 His Schooling: In June 1917, Hemingway graduated from Oak Park High School toward the bottom of his class. Meanwhile, war had broken out in Europe and, preferring fighting to college, he tried to get enlisted in the army but was rejected because of poor eyesight. Frustrated, he went away to live with an uncle in Kansas City where he found a job as a reporter in a newspaper. He liked his writing job, but he still had a compelling urge to get into the war, and the opportunity came soon afterwards. On learning that Italy was recruiting ambulance drivers to serve on the Italian front; he gave up his job and became an ambulance driver in Italy. 2.1.2 Injuries of War: Hemingway had been driving behind the lines for only a few days when he found that his work was too safe, in fact, dull. He wanted to serve on the frontlines in the thick of things. So he volunteered for canteen service and was soon riding a bicycle, handing out mail, tobacco, and chocolates to soldiers in the trenches. On his tenth day in Italy as he was handing a chocolate bar to a soldier, a large mortar shell fell near by. Hemingway was almost buried. His body was filled below the waist with over 250 pieces of shrapnel, but after regaining consciousness, he rescued a badly wounded Italian soldier and was turning to help others when he was hit again, with a machine-gun bullet, below the left knee. 2.1.3 Falls in Love with a Nurse: He spent several weeks in a Red Cross hospital and there he fell in love with an English Nurse Agnes. While in Europe, he received several medals for bravery, and then was sent home, limping on a cane. The Hemingway who went back to America was different person from the young man who had left. War, death, suffering, new people, a new language and love had all been crowded into a short period of time. 2.1.4 Disappointment in Love: While his feet and legs healed, he read a lot and impatiently watched the mail until, one day after receiving a letter, he suddenly became ill. He retired into seclusion and for days hardly left his room. Finally, on being repeatedly asked by his family, he revealed that the letter has came form Agnes informing him that she was not coming to America and that she had married an Italian army major. 2.1.5 Failure and Fame: Sad and disappointed, Hemingway went to Paris for study and to make a living by writing. There, he met and became friendly with some of the worlds greatest literary figures of that day- James Joyce, Gertrude Stein, Ezra Pound, and others. But despite their advice and help, he could not sell his literary attempts. Manuscript after manuscript kept coming back from editors, usually without a single word of encouragement, and with only a printed rejection slip. One day, he was sitting at a side walk cafà © on the Left Bank in Paris and complaining to a friend about his ill luck. The friend observed that perhaps the reason why Hemingways writings did not sell was that he had not suffered enough and that he did not know misery. Hemingway bitterly replied, â€Å"So I have not known misery! So thats what you think!† Then at first seemingly lost in memory, he narrated the story of his lost love, Agnes, the English nurse. He told his friend about the suffering he had endured in World W ar 1. Later, he put the story on paper in the form of a novel, A Farewell to Arms. The book proved to be immensely popular and Hemingway found himself famous. We could probably say that an unhappy love affair and his unhappy experiences in war were the motivating factor which made him being a great author. 2.1.6 Reporting in Spain: He went on writing and was now a successful and established writer. He traveled extensively, hunting in Africa and the Far East, fishing in numerous oceans and seas. He felt greatly attracted by bull-fighting in Spain and spent several years in that country. He covered the Spanish Civil War for American newspapers and could not resist getting into the fight in Madrid. By then, he was known as â€Å"Papa†, a bearded huge figure of a man who joked and swore with the best of the soldiers. 2.1.7 World War II: When World War II began, Hemingway, then living in Cuba, armed his own boat as a submarine chaser and patrolled the Atlantic Coast off the United States. But in 1942, he was in the thick of battle again as a magazine correspondent. He flew from England on bombing missions and became an expert on German rockets. Near the end of the war, he was among the first wave of troops to storm the Normandy beach in 1944. After the war, he retired to Cuba to fish and write. One book proved a failure, and his critics remarked that Papas carrier was over. 2.1.8 The Nobel Prize: Then, in 1952, after years of work, he brought out The Old Man and the Sea, a tale of the struggle of a single, old fisherman against the powers of fate and the ocean. It was the story he had been trying to write all his life, and it brought him the Pulitzer Prize for 1953. In the following year he was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature. Suffering from injuries in plane crashes while hunting wild game in Africa, Hemingway could not go to Sweden to receive the Nobel Prize but in a letter to the Academy he declared that the writers life was a lonely one, and that if he shed his loneliness, his work would deteriorate. Still living in Cuba, Hemingway continued writing short stories, novels, and magazine articles. But he also began to take life easier, spending more time on his fishing boat with his wife, whom he called Miss Mary. â€Å"No one can work everyday in these hot months without going stale,† he wrote during this period. â€Å"To break up the pattern of work, we fish the Gulf Stream in the spring and summer months and in the fall. 2.1.9 A Life of Adventure: Hemingways sixty-two years were packed with excitement. Living through adventure after adventure, he told stories of his life and love on jungles, the two World Wars in which he played a part in Europe, and a giant 1000-pound fish he battled off the Coast of Cuba. But his writing was more than just adventure stories; he helped to set the style for the modern novel. His lean, muscular prose and dramatic plots have, perhaps, been copied more than any other modern authors and his work has been translated into all the worlds major languages. 2.1.10 Ill Health and Suicide: But Hemingway was growing old. His hair and beard had turned white. His old wounds were bothering him. He had to keep standing while writing, and he was frequently unwell. Then Castro took over in Cuba, and Hemingway and Miss Mary returned to America, living in Idaho. He spent a few months in hospitals, began losing weight, and saw his creative ability declining. Early one morning on July 1961, he slipped on the stairs in his home and, not wishing to prolong his suffering, killed himself with a gun. Perhaps he had concluded, like the old fisherman in his novel, that he had no luck anymore. 2.2 His Works: Influenced by Ezra Pound and particularly by Gertrude Stein whose style strongly affected him, Hemingway published Three Stories and Ten Poems in 1923 and In Our Time (a collection of short stories) in 1925. These early stories exhibited the attitude of mind and technique for which Hemingway later became famous. As the leading spokesman for the â€Å"lost generation†, he expressed the feelings of war-wounded people disillusioned by the loss of faith and hope, and so thoroughly defeated by the collapse of former values that they could turn only to a stoic acceptance of primal emotions. The stories are mainly concerned with â€Å"tough† people, both intelligent men and women who have dropped into an exhausted cynicism or such primitives as frontiers-men, I Impact of WW1 on Ernest Hemingways Poetry Impact of WW1 on Ernest Hemingways Poetry 1.1 Introduction: When World War1 broke out in 1914, it ended almost 100 years of relative peace in Europe. America at that time adopted a policy of neutrality and isolation regarding war. This approach was fully supported by the people of America at that time but later, in 1917 the German submarines entered the US marine territories against which the US government finally had to break the ice. So, as a reaction to German invasion America finally launched a counter attack and consequently the whole nation plunged into the great World War1. Unaware of the consequences America unwillingly had to participate in the greatest holocaust of the world known as the World War1. America would never have become a part of World War1 and have stuck to its neutral policy but the German submarines defied the US marine laws and entered the US territories on January 9th, 1917. Woodrow Wilson the US president at that time finally asked congress to declare war on Germany and it was April 2nd, 1917. As a result of this legitimate order America joined the war along with the other Allies. On the other hand the continent of Europe was under the attack of war where World War1 rose like a wall of blood red mountains. Despite having massive military and great weapons war killed ten million Europeans, most of them were young soldiers, nurses and subjects and all became the victims of ultimate death brought by heavy war weapons, flying jets and bullets swimming in the air. It was deaths command everywhere and when death comes to its empire it kills all what it finds. Similar was the situation in America where men, women and children all were on the mercy of a single bullet. Four million American soldiers were killed in war and almost equal number of civilians got killed and injured men, women and children left homeless due to the great wreckage all around with the spread of epidemic disease that resulted in the cause of further deaths of many civilians. It was a chaotic situation after the war ended in 1919. People were completely disillusioned and stunned by the aftermaths of the World War1. They were hopeless and unaware of their futures. The basic matrix of life was completely dissolved by the cruel war and human civilization became a victim of demolition. People lost their faith in basic norms and values of life as war took away with it their hopes, happiness and loved ones too. They seemed completely lost with having no basic aim behind being alive. Young men and women of America started living like herds of sheep and were spending life just for the sake of killing time. Eventually the war ended but it left behind its impact on the mind of masses and its terror got stored into the minds of the post-war generations. People became mentally sick and even after the war was over they felt its aftershocks later on in their lives. World War1 was the greatest trauma of the lives of a great number of Americans who survived the brutal attack of the war. The post-war American race became a victim of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder and other mental disorders which were the result of the shocks given by the World War1. PTSD is a severe kind of state of mind after a great shock or accident that leads a human being to become a patient of insomnia and several other mental retardations. Almost each community and every class in Americas post-war society became a victim of PTSD which became a cause of disbelief and disgracing of the traditional life style on part of American generation. Watching all the above mentioned events and incidents in the midst of the battle fields and among the victims of the World War1 was present Ernest Hemingway, an American Red Cross ambulance driver who witnessed and used all these war events and post-war condition of the society as a backdrop of his literary works. Hemingway represented the American society and a post-war perturbed American generation which is known as the Lost Generation of America. Hemingway being a spokesman of the lost generation, masterly managed to give a unique account of events and incidents that took place in the war and changed the lives of millions of Americans. Hemingways main concern was the American society and its members who were suffering from a post-war disturbed psychological state of mind. Aiken (1926) writes in his essay as edited by Meyers (1982) as follows: The half dozen characters, all of whom belong to the curious and sad little world of disillusioned and aimless expatriates who make what home they can in the cafes of Paris, are seen perfectly and unsentimentally by Mr. Hemingway and are put before us with a maximum of economy 1. (90) As we know wars have always been a cause of destruction, devastation and demolition on a great scale since the descent of mankind on earth. There is no doubt that wars shatter the matrix of human civilization and bring forth despair, death and disease for mankind. Surpassing all the previous wars, the great World-Wars dismantled the hopes, dreams and races on a large scale and nations falling victims of disillusionment, aimlessness and mental stress and physical disorders. One of the greatest diseases that damage the brain after a war is ‘Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, a severe state of human mind after a shock or a trauma. Durand and Barlow (2000) comment on PTSD as follows: In recent years we have heard a great deal about the severe and long-lasting emotional disorders that can occur after a variety of traumatic events. Perhaps the most impressive traumatic event is war, but emotional disorders also occur after physical assault (particularly rape), car accidents, natural catastrophes, or the sudden death of a loved one. The emotional disorder that follows a trauma is known as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) 2. (131) Then I. Sarason and Sarason (2006) in their book on Abnormal Psychology comment: PTSD involves an extreme experience, such as war, a natural catastrophe (for instance an earthquake), a physical assault, or a serious car crash. The traumas range from those that are directly experienced (e.g., being threatened with death) to those that are witnessed (e.g., family member being threatened with death). The onset of the clinical condition in posttraumatic disorders varies from soon after the trauma to long after it has occurred. Most studies have found higher rates among women than men. The prevalence of PTSD in the general population is about 0.5% in men and 1.2% in women (Andreasen and Black, 2001). Because life today is considered to be high in trauma for the population in general, it is estimated that Americans currently have a 5 to 10% chance of developing PTSD at sometime during their lifetimes. The combination of vulnerability factors and exposures earlier in life to traumatic experiences increases the likelihood of PTSD. For instance, having been abused as a ch ild or have had other previous traumatic experiences increases the risk for PTSD, especially for individuals who generally have emotional difficulties, such as anxiety and depression 3. (256) Now keeping in mind the American society which is the sole area of our research, we found the reason behind PTSD in American society and the characters introduced to us by Ernest Hemingway in his works. And that reason was the First World War and its aftermath. The lives of millions of people were badly influenced by World War I in America and in Europe as well. The great holocaust changed the whole concept of life by destroying the basic norms and traditional beliefs in all parts of the world. Priestley (1962) comments on World War I as follows: In the very middle of this age the First World War rises like a wall of blood-red mountains. Its frenzied butchery, indefensible even on a military basis, killed at least ten million Europeans, mostly young and free from obvious physical defects. After being dressed in uniform, fed and drilled, cheered and cried over before they were packed into their cattle-trunks, these ten million were then filled with hot lead, ripped apart by shell splinters, blown to bits, bayoneted in the belly, choked with poison gas, suffocated in mud, trampled to death or drowned, buried in collapsing dugouts, dropped out of burning aero planes, or allowed to die of diseases, after rotting to long in trenches that they shared with syphilitic rats and typhus-infested lice. Death, having come into his empire, demands the best, and got it 4. (321) Almost all the works of Ernest Hemingway are a result of his first-hand experience of war and his staunch observation of life around him. Most of his works prove to be autobiographical in nature and Cooperman (1964) comments on autobiographical nature of Hemingways works as follows: Three elements in Hemingways life shaped many of his attitudes, and indeed shaped much of his works: the fact that in World War I, he suffered a painful and terrible mortar wound, which made him conscious of the dread possibilities of the loss of manhood; the fact that his father committed suicide; and the fact of his growing old†¦ and the fears created by old age itself. Similar to Frederic Henry in A Farewell to Arms, Jake Barnes in The Sun Also Rises, and Santiago in The Old Man and the Sea, Hemingway was afflicted with the fear of letting go and the fear of thinking. The nightmare of chaos, of passivity, loss of will, loss of initiative, loss of masculine role was a terrible nightmare, and one to be avoided at all costs 5. (85-92) It has already been observed that all the Hemingway fiction comes from his war experiences and the aftermath of the war. Many critics have commented on this experience-based technique of Ernest Hemingway. According to Putnam (2006), Tobias Wolff at the Hemingway centennial celebration said, â€Å"Hemingways great war work deals with aftermath. It deals with what happens to the soul in war and how people deal with that afterward.† Putnam (2006) further comments: No American writer is more associated with writing about war in the early 20th century than Ernest Hemingway. He experienced it firsthand, wrote dispatches from innumerable frontlines, and used war as a backdrop for many of his most memorable works 6. Ernest Hemingway is best known as the representative of the â€Å"Lost Generation† of America. He as an artist and writer of literature selected characters from the post-war American society as he was himself a member of that society and he observed it staunchly. Most of his works are based on his personal experience of the society and that is why he is often himself present in his novels as a leading character. Asselineau (1980) comments on Hemingways fiction as follows: It was indeed a â€Å"lost generation† in more senses than one. Yet, Hemingway among others survived the Great War for over forty years and, after appearing as the cynical and disillusioned Byron of twentieth century, ultimately turned into a new â€Å"teacher of athletes† and a â€Å"professeur d energie† a la Barres. A rather surprising change and a very spectacular recovery, which we can follow step by step in his works, since his novels make up an interminable Bildungsroman whose hero is always himself 7. While going through the works of Ernest Hemingway one realizes that Hemingway has very skillfully managed to present before us a group of expatriates who had left their homeland America after getting disillusioned by the war and were living as useless people in different parts of Europe under a special code of life. Asselineau (1980) comments as follows: All the veterans of foreign wars who appeared in Hemingways fiction are united by a common belief in an unwritten code. They are morally and physically very tough. They can take it. They keep a stiff upper lip. They grin and bear it. They refuse to discuss their own emotion and despise loquacious swaggerers like Robert Cohn. They hate gushing. They believe in self control and self imposed discipline. They have reached true wisdom in the etymological meaning of the word â€Å"wisdom†. They are those who know- who know that they are mortal and that sooner or later life ends in death. They know that man- whatever he does- will sooner or later be crushed by the hostile forces which surround him and is bound to be defeated- defeated, but not vanquished, for, like Pascal, they believe in the dignity of man, â€Å"a mere reed, and the weakest that can be found on earth, but even when the universe crushes him, man is still nobler than what kills him, for he knows that he is dying, wh ile the advantage that the universe has over him, the universe is unaware of it.† 8 (1844) High (1986) has also commented on the lost generation as follows: Man young people the post-World War 1 period had â€Å"lost† their American ideals. At the same time America â€Å"lost† many fine young writers- like e.e. cummings and Hemingway- because they had moved to Paris. Fitz Geralds first novel, This Side of Paradise (1920), describes this new generation. They had â€Å"grown up to find all gods dead, all wars fought, all faiths in man shaken.† Two concerns now filled their lives: â€Å"the fear of poverty and the worship of success.† 9 (143) Hemingways The Sun Also Rises proves to be the best of his works and it was also his first proper novel on lost generation of America. The novel stands as a monument over which the whole drama of the lost generation of America has been carved. It was Gertrude Stein the American authoress and Hemingways mentor who for the very first time told E. Hemingway: â€Å"You are all a lost generation.† Hemingway was struck by the comment and used it as an epigraph and also the theme of his first novel, Fiesta (called The Sun Also Rises in US. Ousby (1979) in his essay The Lost Generation comments as follows: Today the ‘lost Generation has come to seem an over-worked catchphrase. Used indiscriminately in its own era, the title has been claimed by successive generations of writers and applied retrospectively to earlier schools, such as the American naturalists. Yet the term remains useful in discussing the novelists of 1920s, if only because epitomizes the way they liked to see themselves. 10 (205) Ousby (1979) further explains the characteristics of the writers of lost generation in following words: Their unique and common experience was a disillusion bred by the First World War. They returned from that conflict to a society whose values seemed hollow and artificial by comparison with the harsh realities of the battle-field. Their alienation from America often took the form of exile and expatriation: Hemingway and Dos Passos spent most of their early adult lives in Europe, while Scott Fitzgerald and Thomas Wolfe were frequent visitors. It would hardly be an exaggeration to say that Paris became the extra-parliamentary centre of American culture in 1920s. It was the shrine to which most ambitious young writers of the era made their pilgrimage. 11 (206) Ousby (1979) in the same essay tells us the factors which affected the writings of the writers of lost generation in the following words: Disillusioned with society in general and America in particular, the novelists of the Lost Generation cultivated a romantic self-absorption- a deliberate retreat into private emotion. They became precocious experts in tragedy, suffering and anguish. The early novels of Hemingway and Scott Fitzgerald are peopled by sad, bitter young men who have lost all illusions at an early age; Amory Blaine of This Side of Paradise and Jake Barnes of Fiesta are the prime examples. They are haunted by war memories and by images of violence, cynical about idealism in any form, and given to only the most cryptic and laconic expressions of feeling. 12 (206) Ousby (1979) also comments on the characters introduced to us by the writers of lost generation as follows: The characters of Lost Generation novels live in restless pursuit of excitement and pleasure. Their Europe is not the gallery of cultural objects found in Hawthornes and Jamess fiction: it is a Europe of elegant restaurants, picturesque bars and intriguing local customs. They delight in kicking over the conventional traces (and in the resultant cries of middle- class horror), indulging in heavy drinking and casual sex. 13 (207) It was only Ernest Hemingway, who among the most famous writers of lost generation of America has been able to won the title of the avant-garde writer of the lost generation. His novel The Sun Also Rises was recommended all over the world as a true story featuring real people from the lost generation. This novel also made Hemingway a world-known celebrity. Nagel (1996) in his essay Brett and the Other Women in The Sun Also Rises comments: This book made him, almost instantly, an international celebrity identified with an entire generation, torn by war and grieving throughout the Roaring Twenties for their lost romantic idealism. Although he was somewhat ill-suited for the role, because he was a hard-working young writer with a wife and a son to support, he came to be regarded as the spokesman for American expatriates, those disillusioned and disaffected artists, writers, and intellectuals who spent the decade on the Left Bank in Paris. 14 (87) In his novel The Sun Also Rises, Hemingway uses Jake as a puppet, a narrator and also his famous code hero. Jake narrates the whole story which Hemingways eye saw sincerely. Nagel (1996) again in his essay Brett and the Other Women in The Sun Also Rises comments on the character of Jake Barnes as follows: He is certainly one of the most isolated and vulnerable figures in American literature, and he narrates out of his disillusionment and pain, his grief evident throughout. As he says about himself, all he wants is to figure out how he can live in the world. It would seem that telling what happened is part of the process of learning how to live in the special circumstances of his world. 15 (90) Nagel (1996) in his essay Brett and the Other Women in The Sun Also Rises comments on Jake being a representative of lost generation in following words: Hemingway humanized this dichotomy in the character of Jake Barnes by creating a man who bears the wounds of the war in a profoundly personal way yet combines his disillusionment with traditional American values of hard work and just compensation. It is surely an oversimplification to see Jake as an uncompromised representative of lost generation radicalism, for he exhibits much of the midwestern values he sometimes satirizes†¦ Above all, it is his judgment that provides the normative sensibility for assessing the people and events of the novel. But to grasp the meaning of what he relates, it is essential to understand the psychological context in which he tells it. 16 (91) Lady Ashley Brett is another important character from the lost generation. She is pure nymphomaniac sort of a woman and is a true representative of the women of the early 20th century. According to Nagel (1996), â€Å"Brett is by no means the first representation of a sexually liberated, free-thinking woman in American literature but rather an embodiment of what became known as the â€Å"New Woman† in nineteenth-century fiction.† Nagel (1996) further says: Brett is not only a women but an extraordinary woman for the age, a point not clear unless she is considered in historical context. Form this perspective, the women in The Sun Also Rises might be regarded as more interesting then the men. The role of women in society had been changing with each decade for a century, always with a good deal of social conflict and ideological struggle. 17 (92) Keeping in mind the agony of Jake due to his relation with Brett, we may easily nominate him as the most suffering person in the novel. His love with Brett makes him feel the pain of his wound which he got during the war, because he could not physically fulfill what he felt. According to Nagel (1996): From the beginning, the world is out of sexual order, the social evening is a parody of erotic potential, and the deeper irony is that this pathology is at the very heart of Jake and Bretts relationship. Their conversation in the taxi reveals the central problem of the novel: that they one another, that they feel that there is nothing they can do about it, that it is painful and destructive for them to be together. Whatever else happens is driven by this fact, and it is impossible for them to change it. The central dilemma for Jake is whether he can change the situation by finding some satisfaction in life. The problem for Brett is that she needs companionship of a man, and no one but Jake can offer her much beyond fleeting sexual pleasure. 18 (94) Jake truly deserves pity because he is the one who lost the most he had during war and even afterwards. His love with Brett gives him nothing except pain and he is also unable to sleep at night due to the agony brought by his love for Brett. Nagel (1996) comments: The â€Å"loss† in the â€Å"lost generation† is sustained primarily by him, and it makes for powerful fiction. The novel works, ultimately, because Jake, in anomalous circumstances, nevertheless presents a normative sensibility in the story he tells. He emerges as a man of intelligence, humor and good sense who lost more than he deserved in World War 1 but learned how to make a life for himself. 19 (105) According to Martin (1987): Jake Barnes and his friends- all of them- are a group because they share the same beliefs and experiences. Except for Robert Cohn, whose differences are less heinous than Jake sometimes thinks them to be, the displaced Americans and Britons are moving through a festival period in their lives, punctuating their aimless existence abroad with an organized visit to Spain for the bullfights. 20 (07) The characters introduced to us by Hemingway live under a peculiar but yet an extraordinary code of life. They behave like a community of people sharing similar set of thoughts and beliefs. Martin (1987) in her New Essays on The Sun Also Rises says: A key theme is the notion of community: These are people who understand each other, the rules they live by, and the reasons for their choices. Only someone outside that community will have difficulty with the social code. Count Mippipopolous may be a stranger to the group, but he understands the code and fits into the society. Robert Cohn, although he spends much time with the members of the group and thinks himself a special friend of both Jake and Brett, never manages to assimilate the rules. Jake, however, is clearly in charge- of the plans, the guest list, the activities, and the emotional nuance. He is the apparent hero of the novel, and his approval or disapproval sets the pattern for the other characters reaction to things. 20 (08) All the characters in the novel The Sun Also Rises seem dissatisfied and unhappy and most of the time they feel themselves useless. Martin (1987) comments on this condition of the characters in following words: There are many reasons for these characters unhappiness. To dwell on â€Å"irony and pity† is just a pastime; the real issues are the lack of alignment between profession and occupation, between lovers, between vacation and work, between ideals of Spain and France, between nature and the commercial. As full of disjunctures as a picture puzzle, The Sun Also Rises still presents a story whole, its fragments necessarily scattered throughout the narrative, and readers accept the fragmentation as one the marks of Hemingways truth. They seize on the purity of Pedro Romero, the wit of the bemused Mike Campbell, the taciturn acceptances of Jake Barnes, the flip bravado of Brett Ashley as the symbols of the characters who survive the onslaught of real life. 21 (16) Chapter 2 Life and Works of Ernest Hemingway 2.1 Birth and Parentage: Ernest Miller Hemingway was born in Oak Park, Illinois, on July 21st, 1899. His father was a doctor. He spent much of his time in his early days roaming about in the woods, rifle on his shoulders, or rowing out across the water of a large lake in quest of big fish. Although his family owned a cottage on a lake, he usually slept outside in a tent, the dim light of a kerosene lantern flickering long hours into the night over his temporary cot as he laid reading. 2.1.1 His Schooling: In June 1917, Hemingway graduated from Oak Park High School toward the bottom of his class. Meanwhile, war had broken out in Europe and, preferring fighting to college, he tried to get enlisted in the army but was rejected because of poor eyesight. Frustrated, he went away to live with an uncle in Kansas City where he found a job as a reporter in a newspaper. He liked his writing job, but he still had a compelling urge to get into the war, and the opportunity came soon afterwards. On learning that Italy was recruiting ambulance drivers to serve on the Italian front; he gave up his job and became an ambulance driver in Italy. 2.1.2 Injuries of War: Hemingway had been driving behind the lines for only a few days when he found that his work was too safe, in fact, dull. He wanted to serve on the frontlines in the thick of things. So he volunteered for canteen service and was soon riding a bicycle, handing out mail, tobacco, and chocolates to soldiers in the trenches. On his tenth day in Italy as he was handing a chocolate bar to a soldier, a large mortar shell fell near by. Hemingway was almost buried. His body was filled below the waist with over 250 pieces of shrapnel, but after regaining consciousness, he rescued a badly wounded Italian soldier and was turning to help others when he was hit again, with a machine-gun bullet, below the left knee. 2.1.3 Falls in Love with a Nurse: He spent several weeks in a Red Cross hospital and there he fell in love with an English Nurse Agnes. While in Europe, he received several medals for bravery, and then was sent home, limping on a cane. The Hemingway who went back to America was different person from the young man who had left. War, death, suffering, new people, a new language and love had all been crowded into a short period of time. 2.1.4 Disappointment in Love: While his feet and legs healed, he read a lot and impatiently watched the mail until, one day after receiving a letter, he suddenly became ill. He retired into seclusion and for days hardly left his room. Finally, on being repeatedly asked by his family, he revealed that the letter has came form Agnes informing him that she was not coming to America and that she had married an Italian army major. 2.1.5 Failure and Fame: Sad and disappointed, Hemingway went to Paris for study and to make a living by writing. There, he met and became friendly with some of the worlds greatest literary figures of that day- James Joyce, Gertrude Stein, Ezra Pound, and others. But despite their advice and help, he could not sell his literary attempts. Manuscript after manuscript kept coming back from editors, usually without a single word of encouragement, and with only a printed rejection slip. One day, he was sitting at a side walk cafà © on the Left Bank in Paris and complaining to a friend about his ill luck. The friend observed that perhaps the reason why Hemingways writings did not sell was that he had not suffered enough and that he did not know misery. Hemingway bitterly replied, â€Å"So I have not known misery! So thats what you think!† Then at first seemingly lost in memory, he narrated the story of his lost love, Agnes, the English nurse. He told his friend about the suffering he had endured in World W ar 1. Later, he put the story on paper in the form of a novel, A Farewell to Arms. The book proved to be immensely popular and Hemingway found himself famous. We could probably say that an unhappy love affair and his unhappy experiences in war were the motivating factor which made him being a great author. 2.1.6 Reporting in Spain: He went on writing and was now a successful and established writer. He traveled extensively, hunting in Africa and the Far East, fishing in numerous oceans and seas. He felt greatly attracted by bull-fighting in Spain and spent several years in that country. He covered the Spanish Civil War for American newspapers and could not resist getting into the fight in Madrid. By then, he was known as â€Å"Papa†, a bearded huge figure of a man who joked and swore with the best of the soldiers. 2.1.7 World War II: When World War II began, Hemingway, then living in Cuba, armed his own boat as a submarine chaser and patrolled the Atlantic Coast off the United States. But in 1942, he was in the thick of battle again as a magazine correspondent. He flew from England on bombing missions and became an expert on German rockets. Near the end of the war, he was among the first wave of troops to storm the Normandy beach in 1944. After the war, he retired to Cuba to fish and write. One book proved a failure, and his critics remarked that Papas carrier was over. 2.1.8 The Nobel Prize: Then, in 1952, after years of work, he brought out The Old Man and the Sea, a tale of the struggle of a single, old fisherman against the powers of fate and the ocean. It was the story he had been trying to write all his life, and it brought him the Pulitzer Prize for 1953. In the following year he was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature. Suffering from injuries in plane crashes while hunting wild game in Africa, Hemingway could not go to Sweden to receive the Nobel Prize but in a letter to the Academy he declared that the writers life was a lonely one, and that if he shed his loneliness, his work would deteriorate. Still living in Cuba, Hemingway continued writing short stories, novels, and magazine articles. But he also began to take life easier, spending more time on his fishing boat with his wife, whom he called Miss Mary. â€Å"No one can work everyday in these hot months without going stale,† he wrote during this period. â€Å"To break up the pattern of work, we fish the Gulf Stream in the spring and summer months and in the fall. 2.1.9 A Life of Adventure: Hemingways sixty-two years were packed with excitement. Living through adventure after adventure, he told stories of his life and love on jungles, the two World Wars in which he played a part in Europe, and a giant 1000-pound fish he battled off the Coast of Cuba. But his writing was more than just adventure stories; he helped to set the style for the modern novel. His lean, muscular prose and dramatic plots have, perhaps, been copied more than any other modern authors and his work has been translated into all the worlds major languages. 2.1.10 Ill Health and Suicide: But Hemingway was growing old. His hair and beard had turned white. His old wounds were bothering him. He had to keep standing while writing, and he was frequently unwell. Then Castro took over in Cuba, and Hemingway and Miss Mary returned to America, living in Idaho. He spent a few months in hospitals, began losing weight, and saw his creative ability declining. Early one morning on July 1961, he slipped on the stairs in his home and, not wishing to prolong his suffering, killed himself with a gun. Perhaps he had concluded, like the old fisherman in his novel, that he had no luck anymore. 2.2 His Works: Influenced by Ezra Pound and particularly by Gertrude Stein whose style strongly affected him, Hemingway published Three Stories and Ten Poems in 1923 and In Our Time (a collection of short stories) in 1925. These early stories exhibited the attitude of mind and technique for which Hemingway later became famous. As the leading spokesman for the â€Å"lost generation†, he expressed the feelings of war-wounded people disillusioned by the loss of faith and hope, and so thoroughly defeated by the collapse of former values that they could turn only to a stoic acceptance of primal emotions. The stories are mainly concerned with â€Å"tough† people, both intelligent men and women who have dropped into an exhausted cynicism or such primitives as frontiers-men, I